The Responsibilities of Women in Islamic and Roman Societies

To each society, there is its own set of rules. Many of these rules separate the women from the men or the children from the adults by creating certain duties for each individual. There are many comparisons between the women of Islamic and Roman societies. The roles that are given to these two groups of women show what is expected of them as a wife, the mother of the family, and where they stand politically. Islamic women are allowed to make decisions on their own when it comes to marriage. According to Islamic Law, a woman is granted the right to choose her husband and cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.(Braswell, p.155) As a wife, she must stand behind her husband at all times. If her husband does not†¦show more content†¦96-98) The family role of the women in Roman societies is sum what similar to that of Islamic women. Roman women are also responsible for the duties of the household. But instead of the Roman women doing the jobs themselves , they had slaves to do the tasks for them. Her job was to oversee the slaves.(Esposito, April 2005) Islamic wife, the Roman wife was also in charge of the early education of their children. Another job of a wife was to have children. (Lewis, J., p. 56) In the past, Islamic women were not granted the right to vote or join in politics, but over the years the legal status of women in Islam has relaxed and changed. Muslim women in the Middle East have the right to vote, and may join in politics. Along with this, they are permitted to have vital government jobs. (Braswell, p.155) A woman s status , however, is not as high as a man s is in society. They still must follow many traditional customs. An example of one custom is that women are encouraged to do is dress modestly, by wearing veils in public. (Lippman, p.38) Although Muslim men and women are not looked upon as equals in every sense, there has been a lot of improvement and many changes have been made in the women s favo r. Ancient Roman women were not given the same privileges as Islamic women. Women in ancient Rome were not allowed to hold office, supervise their own finances, or go out of the houseShow MoreRelatedJudaism, Christianity, And Islam1670 Words   |  7 Pagesreligions differ in spirituality, but the gender roles between males and females are quite different as well. In Islam, women are allowed to take on professions, in Christianity women were healed by Jesus and followers of Christ and in Judaism, women were looked to as spiritual leaders and housewives that made an extreme impact on their children. All roles were different among these women in these three religions, and they differ in so many more ways. To begin with, Islam is the second largest of theRead MoreSeparation Of Church And State1207 Words   |  5 Pagespredominate religion in France, the number of adherents is declining, however, globally this is not an abnormal pattern, as society is becoming increasingly secular (Harvard, 2017). According to a Survey produced by the Institute of Consumer Science and Analytics, in 2012; 56% of the French population identified as Christians, 32% adhered to no religion and 6% expressed the Islamic faith, the remaining 6% belonged to other religious groups, whose populations were significantly smaller than the threeRead MoreTerrorism Is A Global Issue1462 Words   |  6 Pagesuse that hatred to commit planned, and organized acts of violence to cause fear in a society, and show that the society’s government is unable to protect its citizens. Acts of terrorism usually affects innocent people, in their daily lives, including children. The societies that are attacked are forced to c hange the way it is run in order to protect that society from future attacks. These changes can make a society feel as though their government is being too controlling. The main objective of terrorismRead MoreThe Controversial Issue Of Abortion1571 Words   |  7 Pagesevery ten women over the age of forty-five, have had an abortion. Terminating a pregnancy by abortion catalyzes many disagreements on whether a woman is destroying a human life or not. This type of controversy that follows abortion affects almost every field it touches, including politics. Evidently, this often forces women to choose between their personal preferences and religious beliefs. This ongoing issue still presents many reasons that drive the adherents of the Catholic and Islamic faiths toRead MoreReligion And Religion : Religion866 Words   |  4 Pagesand even their own women. Religion runs to both ends of a spectrum, causing a sense of lack of responsibility and too much responsibility. Religion gi ves individuals the idea that they are higher than others and condemns those that are lesser than them, such as gays, mentally handicapped, and deformed individuals. Religion is the main cause for much of the destruction of the world and destruction within ourselves. What is the woman’s role in society? Until recently, women were seen as beingsRead MoreThe Conflict Of The Rwandan Genocide1511 Words   |  7 PagesSometime in April 1994, during the Rwandan Genocide, Father Athanase Seromba helped lure 2,000 Tutsi men, women, and children into his church where they thought they would be safe. One day, Seromba began clearing out the Communion chalices. A refugee in the church begged him to leave the Eucharist so that they could hold a final mass. However, Seromba refused, telling the congregation that the building was no longer a church. Another refugee asked the priest if he would pray for them. He answeredRead MoreComparative Religions Encyclopedia Of The Jewish People1277 Words   |  6 Pagesback to the bronze age, somewhere in the middle east. God had provided a nomad leader for the people, and he was named Abraham. Allah: Allah is literally the islamic word for god. Allah is the only god of the Islamic religion. Allah has no gender, and allah is used as respected and dignity, and believe allah is the only god. The islamic people believe that he is the sustainer, healer, and protector. B. Buddhism: Buddhism is as spiritual faith that traditional focuses on own personal spiritualRead MoreThe Human Process Of Communication1534 Words   |  7 Pagesexplores the contributing factors of marital negotiation, diplomacy and comprehension of relationship elements as well as human discernment skills when approaching marriage and communication pertaining to various cultural views. The Hinduism, Islamic and Christian spiritual cultures are chosen for their comparative and diverse qualities, cited in summation context in this report. The provided data is meant to render a new outlook for developing an effective form of marital intercommunicationRead MoreMiddle Eastern Culture Essay2011 Words   |  9 Pagesthe advent of Islam and the years following the Arab conquest. Today, the Islamic world spreads from the corners of the Philippines to the far edges of Spain and Central Africa. Various cultures have adopted the Islamic faith, and this blending of many different cultures h as strengthened the universal Islamic culture. The religion of Islam has provided a new meaning to the lives of many people around the world. In the Islamic world, the religion defines and enriches culture and as a result the cultureRead MoreComparing Roman And Greek Mythology1354 Words   |  6 Pages Roman Vs. Greek Mythology Roman and Greek mythology are full of complexities. Much of Greek and Roman everyday life revolved around these myths. Many similarities are obvious between Roman and Greek mythology because the Romans borrowed a significant amount of their myths and gods from the Greeks. Although Roman and Greek mythology have a few components in common, they also have many various aspects that cause differences in their cultures. First of all; values, morals, traditions

17th Century Venetian Opera Free Essays

string(112) " said that the theaters were luxaria, and because of his account, the Jesuits destroyed the theaters in Venice\." Lauren Rader Music History I November 19, 2010 17th Century Opera in Venice Between 1637 and 1678, in nine different theaters, Venetian audiences saw more than 150 operas. The creation of public opera houses sparked the interest of the people of the time because of social and philosophical changes that were happening in the Republican state of Venice. Opera was not only interesting to the elite. We will write a custom essay sample on 17th Century Venetian Opera or any similar topic only for you Order Now It had now made its way to a public audience. The primary audience was the crowd of Venetians and tourists that came for the carnival season in Venice. Opera succeeded as a public art form for many reasons: because of its exquisite musicality, it was highly successful and it became a way to produce revenue. Ellen Rosand says that three conditions existed for opera to be a permanent establishment in the Venetian culture: there was regular demand during the carnival season, dependable financial backing, and a broad predictable audience. An important group involved with the financial backing and librettos written for the opera houses were the Accademia degli Incogniti, translating to â€Å"The Academy of Unknowns†. This was a secret society of noblemen, founded by Giovanni Francesco Loredano.One reason opera was such a success during this time was due to this libertine group. Even though their ideas were bold and they said heretical things, without their financial backing, their librettos may have never made it to the opera houses if they hadn’t been in Venice at that time. Also, women were expected to exhibit certain soc ial and moral standards during this time, and this was often the theme of many librettos written by the Accademia degli Incogniti from 1637-1678. The librettos were themed around virtues where a protagonist exemplified an act of goodness in her role.Another important factor about Venetian opera was that before the San Cassiano opera house, operas had been written for private courts of the wealthy aristocrats only. Public opera houses marked a new form of social event, entertainment, and source of revenue for musicians, writers/poets, and wealthy benefactors. Venice was a republican state and the government was considerably more open to new ideas and conventions than the rest of Italy, cities like Florence and Rome. Venice was a state with its own special position in the world and history that integrated freedom and stability. The great myth of Venice was that it was an undefeated state.The people claimed that the city was founded on the day of Annunciation on March 25, 421. Since that time no one had defeated Venice, and by the 17th Century it had lasted longer than ancient Rome. Scholars believe that this was because of its republican constitution allowing the noblemen to share the power and divide it among themselves. The wealthy were about 5% of the population, but the common people were pleased with this way of government and lived happily without too much complaint. [1] Venice’s government was more relaxed and open, and that had much to do with what was allowed and not allowed in the public opera houses of the time.Another fact that is important to note is that the ruling patricians (noblemen) were involved in commerce and the arts—eventually opera. According to Edward Muir, â€Å"At the end of the sixteenth century, the camerata theorists under Medici patronage invented the form of musical drama now called â€Å"opera† for performance in the courtly environment of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany† (Muir 331). The opening of the Teatro San Cassiano marked the first public opera house for a paying audience. There was a divided relationship between patrician youth and the elderly patrician office holders.While the youth were licentious, the older generation had an impulse for social control. [2] The old law passed by the Council of Ten prohibited theatrical performances that were for carnivals and weddings, especially banning comedies. The Accademia degli Incogniti probably retrieved some of their ideas from the Compagnie della Calza, a club of young nobles â€Å"known for their hedonism and pushing the limits of their elders† (Muir 334), created at the end of the 16th century. The Compangie protected their identity through a code of silence. They used surnames, much like the Accademia degli Incogniti would do a century and a half later.Nonetheless, secret organizations were a way to avoid public persecution and harassment, while still speaking out on controversial issues. A young playwright, Ruzante, played characters that made fun of and criticized the upper class. To this end, Ruzante wrote a play where one critic complained that he exceeded the boundaries of taste: â€Å"completely lascivious, with very dirty words, and God was blasphemed by all of them, and [the audience] shrieked at them†(Muir 334). This relationship between cutting edge and tradition continued to be a prevalent issue into the time of Venetian opera in the 1600s.A distinguishing feature of new theaters was â€Å"the inclusion of several floors of boxes that provided elevated, separated, and private spaces from with paying customers, apparently patricians and distinguished foreigners could watch performances† (Muir 335). From his book, â€Å"The Short, Lascivious Lives of Two Venetian Theaters†. Eugene Johnson, talks about box seats creating a feeling of premier social space that was private but at the same time public. Yet, Venetians soon started to use thes e box seats as modern day motel rooms; â€Å"the box itself became a stage for imagination and metaphor for the libertine style†(Muir 335). The box seats were called plachi. The Jesuits complained almost immediately that these â€Å"wicked acts†¦creating scandal† in the plachi were immoral and provided another reason to promote their anti-theater cause. There is no real evidence of these scandalous acts taking place, but accounts say that boxes read on the floor â€Å"per le donne†. During these obscene comedies, obscene acts were taking place at the same time on the other side of the thin wooden box seats; for Venetian theater was full of scandal.In 1606, Antonio Persis wrote in defense of the papal cause, criticizing the Venetians for their â€Å"addiction to avarice and luxuria† (Rosand 412). He said that the theaters were luxaria, and because of his account, the Jesuits destroyed the theaters in Venice. You read "17th Century Venetian Opera" in category "Papers" On the other hand, the Jesuits were then banned from Venice in late 1606 by the Interdict crisis, which opened up the opportunity a gain for seasonal comic theater. Even before opera, Venetians held a long standing tradition for carnivals, comedies, courtesans, and scandal. However, the politics in Venice â€Å"remained simply conservative and committed to republicanism† (Muir 337).Although, opera was comic and touched on social context of men and women, â€Å"[it] had the capacity to engage current political affairs and debates† (Romano 402). In Purciello’s thesis from Princeton University, he talks about opera standing in contrast with the religious and economic ambiguity â€Å"amidst the spectacle and festivities of the carnival season. Venice was a port center where â€Å"people from the four corners of the world convened. This mix of cultures produced a rather exotic atmosphere: a combination of Christian and pagan religious histories.All sorts of audiences, rich and poor, swarmed to public opera houses to experience spectacle, music, and drama. Venice was a city where commercial business was thriving, which resulted in mass productions of entertainment (Purciello 11). Opera houses repeated operas a season by altering the music of libretti, characters wearing new costumes, and reinforcing popular plot lines. Musicians and talent were not usually local Venetian musicians. They were traveling tour groups, who performed all over Italy and Europe. Yet, the musicians knew the unique character Venice required for its music, and how it differed in performance practice.Venetian opera was centered on spectacle: The use of stage machinery caused an increase in the number and elaborateness of scene change; but this is because there were whole stories told in the sets and the machinery, much of which is lost to the scholar today, who has little ability to reconstruct the stage scenery, and must rely on the libretti and the score† (Thornburn 183). Set design was crucial to the success of an opera. Part of the carnival atmosphere was seeing something extravagant and out of the ordinary. Venetian opera was the epitome of the kind of luxurious and complex entertainment.Theaters prided themselves and showed of how much money they had by buying costly machinery. One way to move the scenes, backdrops, and other stage devices was to cut holes in the floor and slide the set along the grooves for smooth scene transitions. Before this invention, the operas would use dances to distract the audience from a scene change (Thornburn). The man who invented this idea was stage director, Giacomo Torelli: â€Å"he cut grooves all the way through the stage from the floor, and wings were mounted on little carriages that ran along the tracks located in the sub-stage area.Wings, back scenes, and borders were then operated by means of a winch system with counter weights. Thus, with the turning of a central drum beneath the stage, the entire scene changed almost instantaneously† (Thornburn 175). There was a large contrast from the way scenes were changed before Torelli’s invention. In the Cambridge Guide to Theatre it says that the scene changes were like â€Å"cinema dissolves† and unnecessary shifts between scenes were made for the delight of seeing it happen.Besides the stage machinery’s functional use, â€Å"in the same way the contemporary action films may have thin plots because the visual technology is so powerful, so these works must have overwhelmed to beauty of line in either the music or the poetry† (Thornburn 176). Starting in 1637 opera houses began to open as large scale venues. The four major theaters open in Venice were the San Cassiano, San Moise, San Salvatore, and Santi Giovanni e Paolo. Most of these opera houses seated anywhere from four to five hundred spectators. The Teatro Novissimo was â€Å"the shortest-lived and most influential theatre in the early years of Venetian commercial opera, opened for the carnival season of 1641† (Thorburn). The Novissimo presented operas from 1641 to 1645. There has been some debate as to when the theater actually stopped presenting operas. Cristoforo Ivanovich claims that there were operas going on until 1646, up until the day the theater was completely demolished. â€Å"In spite of its brief life†¦ the theater was atypical of opera theaters in Venice because it was intended for an audience that was entirely Venetian†(Thornburn 136).In a dissertation by Hugh Thornburn, he says that audience members who regularly attended the Novissimo were academic and aware of their intelligence, and they prided themselves in participating in the opera culture. However, they were not able to pay for their interest, hence the reason for the Teatro Novissimo closing. The Jesuit-driven ban on public theater was removed in 1607, so theatrical activity was increasing by the 1620s. By the 1630s the movement for more opera houses as a form of public entertainment was in full swing. The Venetian carnival season was the most important time of the year in Venice.Opera served as carnival entertainment, â€Å"a form of ribald and often satirical comedy performed during the annual season of festive license† (Muir 333). Spectacle was one attraction the opera house brought to the carnival season. However, there were social issues, involving mixed views on gender and how women fit into the role of opera libretti during the seventeenth century. Once opera theater became accepted as a part the Venetian carnival season, Gianfrancesco Loredano founded the Accademia degli Incogniti in 1630. This association was made up of men who had liberal ideas, who were either rich aristocrats or scholars.The Accademia â€Å"on May 30, 1640 agreed to the concept of a communally owned theater created to express the aesthetics of the Accademia† (Thorburn 134). The Accademia was founded on the principles of a professor who taught at the University of Padua, Cesare Cremonini. Cremonini’s influence spread to his students who were in the Accademia degli Incogniti very powerfully. He taught in a way that adhered to Aristotle’s work and he paid little attention to â€Å"Christian theological precepts†, like the creation of the world and the immorality of the soul.He did not admit that he was a non-believer, but his â€Å"somewhat blasphemous views were well known to his Venetian admirers. The members of the Incogniti expressed themselves through novella, poems, letters, and plays. Paolo Fabbri lays claim that the Incognito legacy used â€Å"eroticism and trasvestism in the operas†. The Incogniti used opera libretti and their writings as propaganda. The opera audiences were large, so the propaganda could reach many people who came to the carnival season. The Incogniti had a duel identity. First of all they were patriotic, since they were noble men and leaders of the Republic. In contrast, they also â€Å"emphasized a kind of libertismo, a moral freedom that was particularly skeptical of religious authority† (Heller 69). The members of this group had a very keen interest in defining the social structures that supported the stability of Venice; â€Å"a critical aspect of this social structure depended on the†¦position of women†: their suppression through marriage, while at the same time the â€Å"tolerance of a vibrant sex and pleasure industry†. 3] Incogniti writings focused on women and their sexuality. They hypothesized â€Å"the female problem† which said that the fundamental problem of love and female morality was that it did not exist unless men were there to silence women and instruct them as how to love them. Cremonini taught that â€Å"friendship was something that could be shared by men of similar social and economic class; wi th women, the focus was on sexual relationships, and only rarely did male writers concern themselves with friendships between women† (Heller 75). The Incogniti wrote libretti that reflected these claims about women. For example, in Loredano’s play La forza d’amore it was clear that the general attitude towards women was negative and skeptical, much like the way the Incogniti viewed the Catholic Church. The Incogniti wrote about their admiration and physical desire for women, but also criticized the power women had to capture the hearts and souls of men. Conversely, there were women who spoke up against the Accademia. One of these women was Sister Arcangela Tarabotti. She wrote seven manuscripts defending female virtue and chastity, and exchanged letters with Loredano and other members of the Incogniti.She â€Å"exposed many complaints about the Venetian patriarchy and the social system whereby young women were forced to bury themselves in nunneries†(Heller 93). Consequently women were portrayed as venomous, unfaithful, and temptresses who couldn’t be trusted in the operas written by the Accademia degli Incogniti. During this time of Baroque opera, visual and aural spectacle were expected, and â€Å"emphasis on suspense and exaggeration was an ideal vehicle for the conveyance of cultural messages†(Heller 69). There was a demand for fresh works because the opera was the primary entertainment during the carnival season in Venice.Some common themes for these operas were: two pairs of lovers separated then united at the end; scenes of sleep, laments, nurses and pages who were comic roles; and a clear distinction between recitative and arias (Rosand 415). The genre of Venetian opera was successful because aristocrats in the Republican government were involved in the arts and put forth the money to run opera houses. How to cite 17th Century Venetian Opera, Papers

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, soc Essay Example For Students

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, soc Essay iology is the study of human social behavior. In other words, to understand the world around us, we must understand the different aspects of sociology and different sociological viewpoints. As is to be expected, there are many different viewpoints on why people or why society acts the way is does. But there are very few who views and ideas are as prominent as such theorists as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Although there viewpoints are supported by many case studies, they do differ on some very key issues. So it would be doing oneself a grave injustice to understand and hold as true one of these viewpoints while completely ignoring the others. Understanding as many different ideals as possible will help in making the best interpretation when trying to understand any complex society. One of the things that makes these three theorists work so unbelievable is the fact that they produced their works many decades ago, but much of what they believed still holds true in the mode rn world. If they could publish so long ago and their theories still hold true today, there must be a good deal of validity to these ideas. But besides that fact, and maybe even more important, these ideas and theories can help to formulate unique ideas and interpretations of the world. We see the world through our own eyes, we all have unique experiences which develop unique ideas. Through understanding some important ideas of the past, it will help in not only understanding the world around us, but also in developing new theories for future generations. The article I have chosen to unpack using Weberian, Durkheimian, and Marxian views is from the November 21st issue of The Economist and it is entitled When Lawsuits Make Policy. According to this article, the new trend in getting things done in the U.S. is through exploiting the legal system. Things that people could not achieve previously in a democratic fashion are now being taken to the courts. But this creates a major paradox for our strongly democratic society. This takes the power out of voting and puts the power into the courtrooms and this is clearly not what the American society supports. It has always been through democracy that things get done in this country and now that right has been undeservingly given to the courts. The fundamental question this article answers is: Do the courts have rights to make policy?The two industries that are taking the biggest blows from this new trend are the tobacco industry and the weapons (particularly gun industry) industry. Attorneys-gen eral are using lawsuits now in their fight against these industries, addressing the same issues that have in the past been unsuccessful in Congress and the state legislatures. What the article asks is whether it is worth sacrificing the entire democracy of the U.S. as we know it to shut down or limit the existence of such unwanted industries. What better way to understand the logic behind this situation than through the eyes of the a fore mentioned theorists. There are four basic ideas which, if focused on, will reveal how the article can be understood by these theorists and in turn possibly help to form a new unique interpretation of the situation. The first is the section explaining the tactics some Attorneys-general used in suing these corporations (see highlight labeled 1). It basically shows the amount being sued for and plainly reveals the fact that no congressional approval is needed to file these suits. The second part I feel is of some concern is the part about how now other mayors and states are taking similar actions to these Attorneys-general and how this new wave solution is creating somewhat of a trend (see highlight labeled 2). This illustrates how the system of democracy is being placed on the outside. Thirdly (highlight labeled 3), it is now creating a new way for public officials to make large profits. P ublic officials will now be able to exploit a this new situation in our already exploitative society. And lastly, is a section that explains the fact that if America continues in this fashion it will take the power out of democracy and put it in the threats of mass litigation ( The Economist, p.18). In understanding these four key ideas through the minds of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, one can develop their own understanding of the situations this article tries to address. Lets first put on our Weberian goggles. Weber believes strongly in the individual of society and the individuality he/she creates. The best way to understand Weberian ideals is through understanding the individual. We have to understand this article as individuals acting rationally and those actions leading to conflict and change. Through what Weber would term value rational action, the people in both the gun and tobacco industries act towards maintaining their stronghold on the American marketplace, whereas their opposition wants them to be removed or at the very least changed dramatically. Weber would break down the first key part of the article through his ideas of ideal types and value rational action. According to Weber, the only way to understand a persons actions is through first understanding that person and where theyve come from. Man can understand or attempt to understand his own intentions through introspection, and he may interpret the motives of other mens conduct in te rms of their professed of ascribed intentions (Gerth Mills, p. 56). In order to understand why the Attorneys-general filed lawsuits against the tobacco industry, it is necessary to understand how they view the world: what they think is right and wrong, what they think is the proper way America should be run, etc. Using verstehen, we must put ourselves in these Attorneys-general shoes to understand the reasoning behind the lawsuits. While understanding this situation through their eyes, we must also understand their ideal types. Ideal types are used as measuring sticks to compare the world around them to. As general concepts, ideal types are tools with which Weber prepares the descriptive materials of world history for comparative analysis (Gerth Mills, p. 60). So basically Weber would argue that these Attorneys-general are filing lawsuits against the tobacco and gun industries because they do not fit into not only their ideal type, but also into what they think Americas ideal type company should be; therefore, they need to be dealt with accordingly. On the other side of things, the companies still want to produce guns and cigarettes when they know that all they do is kill. Weber would argue that these companies are taking much more traditional actions. The individuals want to keep their jobs therefore they are all but forced to both keep producing these products and also fight on there behalf. This is a much more conventional or traditional approach. They want and need to keep their jobs therefore they act in the best interest of themselves which is, in turn, the best interest of the company. pride and prej.doc EssayThe second focal point also needs to be seen through Weberian ideals. This point is a great example of how groups come to be formed. As mentioned before, people have different experiences which lead them to have beliefs. Even though people may have many different ideas, just one similar idea can bring them together. No matter if they are from different areas, their common belief will formulate similar ideas which will and does form them into groups, whether they know it or not. The article states that because of the likely success of the Attorneys-general, now big-city mayors are now planning to use lawsuits also in reaching their goals (The Economist, p. 17). People from different areas with different backgrounds come to form groups through similar beliefs. This, according to Weber, all goes back to the individual. We must understand the individual as the ultimate unit of explanation (Gerth Mills, p. 58). Weber would view the third key issue as a situation of irrational action. To understand actions, we must both understand an individuals rational actions as well as that individuals irrational actions. It seems very irrational that public officials would attempt to benefit off a loop hole in the American democratic system. Public officials are supposed to stand for the rights of people according to the rules of this democratic nation. But in this case they are acting in complete contradiction to this belief. But what is seen as irrational to us is very rational to them. If things play out the way they hope, they will substantially benefit economically. Although we are part of a democratic society, when it comes down to it, those with the money make the rules. Finally is the fourth main point of this article. If this new trend does not change soon, we may see an entirely new side of this democracy known as America. This new trend of taking it to the courts could destroy the democracy we supposedly hold so sacred in this country. But s ome individuals are still in favor of it. This once again comes back to Weberian views of the individual. This idea exemplifies the basis for how change comes about. Individuals act rationally, and these rational actions lead to conflicts, which ultimately lead to changes in values, ideas, and frameworks. In order to understand this article using a Weberian train of thought, you must understand the individual and his/her relationship to society. To break it down to basic terms, society is about individuals acting rationally. Since one individuals idea of acting rationally can sometimes different than another individual, conflicts sometimes arise. But it is through these conflicts that changes in values, ideas, and frameworks of society occur. If you know the basics of this reasoning, you know the basics of Weberian theory. ***********Using the opposite framework from Weber, Durkheims major focus is how groups shape the individual. The ideas of the group (conscience collective) shape the actions of the individual: they shape our individuality. To Durkheim, it is impossible for a society to be viewed as just a bunch of individuals who take a bunch of individual actions. A society is much more than just a bunch of individuals. A society composed of egotistic, or self-seeking, individuals (or a utilitarian society), would be no society at all (Giddens, p. 2). Much of what Durkheim has to argue is in opposition to Utilitarianism. Utilitarian thinking entertains the idea that human behavior is basically driven by self interest. Utilitarian philosophy places man outside of history, seeking to interpret human social actions in terms of a-temporal concepts of utility and the pursuit of self-interest (Giddens, p. 1-2). But, according to Durkheim, utilitarian viewpoints fail to realize the affect of the group (co llective conscience) on the thoughts and actions of the individual. Understanding certain human actions (like suicide) would not be possible if the affect of the group on the individual is not understood. Whenever any elements combine and, by the fact of their combination produce new phenomena, it is evident that these phenomena are not given in the elements, but in the totality formed by their union (Giddens, p. 70). In this way Durkheims idea of collective conscience challenges and contradicts utilitarian ways of thinking. So in a nutshell, understanding collective conscience and the effect it has on the individual will help to understand Durkheims interpretation of society. The first important section of the article can be understood through collective conscience. Society has placed a negative stereotype against guns and tobacco (primary deviance). Therefore the Attorneys-general acted how they felt society wanted them to act resulting in lawsuits. The second follows along with this same principle. Important figures, such as attorneys-general, display the fact that they were against guns and tobacco. This sends a message that guns and tobacco are in opposition to the ideal collective conscience, hence other groups follow along and decide to take similar action. They are acting according to the collective conscience. The third focal point has a slightly different reasoning behind it. In this case, the public officials need to find the balance between the group and the individual. Society tells the American individual to believe in democracy and act according to it. But the individual also realizes that however much American society believes in democracy, those with money rule. So in the articles case, the public officials must balance the society and the individual. On one hand, the individual wants to take the democratic path, but, on the other hand, the individual also is persuaded by the money involved. Therefore some sort of balance between the two must be achieved. In this case, that balance comes through money. And finally, the fourth idea can be understood through ritual. It is ritual for disputes in American society to be handled in a democratic fashion. But this new trend (using lawsuits), goes against this ritual. This new trend is not consistent with the norm therefore it creates turmoil. Now that others are picking up on the trend, it may become a new ritual in our American society. A change in the ritual would undoubtedly create a change in conscience collective and ideal types, therefore a change in society. If these four ideas are understood than it should be simple to see the Durkheimian interpretation of this artic le. ***********Capitalism is the most important aspect of Marxian theory. Seeing the world as being fundamentally about capitalism and the spread of capitalism is seeing the world as Marx would. In understanding this concept, it is important to understand the Labor Theory of Value. Basically, money is the claim over the labor of others. The value or worth of a man is, as in all other things, his price: that is, so much as would be given of the Use of his Power (Kamenka, p. 405). Out of this idea comes some very fundamental aspects of capitalism, such as surplus value and exploitation. Not knowing about exploitation and surplus value is not knowing about capitalism. Surplus value is basically the amount of labor that can be received more than the amount paid. So for example, if I pay a worker 2 dollars and their work makes me 4 dollars, than they would have a 2 dollar surplus value. One great way of creating an enormous surplus value is through exploitation. Marx comments on surplus value, The quantity of labour by which the value of the workmans labouring power is limited forms by no means a limit to the quantity of labour which his labouring power is apt to perform (Kamenka, p. 408). In understanding the relationship between surplus value and exploitation, it becomes evident that the world basically comes down to those with the means of production continually searching for this surplus value through exploitation. These ideals help to form the framework in trying to unpack this article as Marx would. The Attorneys-general are trying to rid the tobacco and gun industries of their power. Therefore, according to Marx, they must rid them of their capital or their ability to control the means of production. What better way to do that than through stripping them of their money. Without money, they lose some of the tight grip they possess on the means of production. Secondly Marx would argue that the other opposition (states and mayors) to the tobacco and gun industr ies see that the threat of stripping these industries of their means of production may be the solution, so they take similar action. Seeing the power of money, they also file lawsuits. The third key idea is about taking control of the means of production. The public officials will cease the opportunity of taking advantage of all the money that would be available through all these new lawsuits. They could translate this money into taking control of the means of production. After gaining control of the means of production, they can exploit workers creating surplus value and therefore strengthening their grip on these newfound means of production giving them power. The final ideal can also be addressed through capitalist beliefs. The new trend of fighting the tobacco and gun industry is through stripping these industries of capital. Doing this is not good for the prospects of maintaining democracy, but it is a good way to capture a grip over the means of production. Therefore these act ions taken against these companies can be seen as capitalist actions. The Marxian interpretation is based on capitalism. Understanding society as fundamentally being about capitalism and the spread of capitalism is understanding this article through Marxian eyes. ***********Having knowledge of Weber, Durkheim, and Marx undoubtedly increases the capacity of my intellectual tool-kit, and aids in interpreting the contemporary world. First off, they prepare me with a much more solid framework by which I can make more intelligent interpretations. It helps me to understand how the world actually works as opposed to how the world should work. There is a very distinct difference between these two statements and understanding that difference only becomes possible if a strong framework is possessed. A second subject these theorists allow me to understand is the idea of the individual and how the individual relates to society. They help you to understand the individual as a part of society, bu t also the society as a part of the individual. Their work also broadened my personal viewpoints of Sociology and Anthropology. I always knew that these two areas where key, but now I can understand them as a science. If I understand the science of sociology and anthropology, I will be better equipped when it comes to understanding the world around me. Through understanding these two sciences, I have come to understand that society has no clear path and that it is ever-changing. Those changes come from people. We make history but not as we choose. This makes for our uncontrollable and at times unpredictable future. And finally, I can now better understand history. If we study history we can avoid mistakes made in the past. But a big part of understanding history is understanding power: what power is and who has it. Power is different for all three, but understanding the different aspects of power helps in answering this age old question. I now understand their views and these views help me formulate my very own views. And it is through both the formulation of these unique views and putting these views into action that keeps this world ever changing and at the same time unpredictable.